Tag: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Negative importance of coral reefs




A coral reef is a limestone rock which is made up of skeletons of small living organisms called polyps.

The formation of coral reefs is highly attributed to the presence of calcium carbonate in the skeletons of polyps.

When the polyps die, their skeletons which contain calcium carbonate are compacted together to form a coral rock.

In East Africa, they are only found along the East African coast.

negative importance of coral reefs




The following are the Negative importance of coral reefs

  • Coral reefs break down into coral Wanda which are infertile soils hence can’t support agriculture.
  • Coral reefs can be an obstacle to navigation because sharp rocks at the sea bottom can cause boats and ships to capsize.
  • Lagoons resulting from coral reef formation are breeding grounds for disease spreading vectors like mosquitoes.




  • Coral reefs damage fish nets by tearing them hence making losses for the fishermen.
  • Quarrying of limestone leads to land degradation.
  • Processing and mining of coal rocks produces dust which pollutes air.

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Characteristics of tropical northern climate

Tropical Northern Climate is experienced in a small area in the N. W part of Kenya bordering Uganda.




The following are Characteristics of tropical northern climate

  • High average temperatures.
  • Temperatures are modified in some places by altitude.
  • Low mean annual rainfall of about 850mm.
  • Rain falls mainly in June and September.
  • Experiences a long dry season of up to 6 months.




Tropical continental climate

This climate is also known as Sudan-type or Savannah climate. In the interior of the continents it
is referred to as tropical continental climate.

Location: This climatic region occurs between 5oN and 15oN and 5oS and 15oS though it
extends to 25o north or south of the equator. It is best developed in most parts of Africa, and
some parts of South America, India, and Australia.




Climatic characteristics

  • Hot summers (32oC) and cooler winters (21oC).
  • The annual temperature range is about 11oC.
  • The highest temperatures occur just before the rainy season begins.
  • Heavy rains, mainly convection, occur in the summer.
  • Total annual rainfall is around 765mm, though this increases in the areas lying close to the equatorial climate region. Similarly, rainfall decreases towards the tropical deserts.
  • Humidity is high during the hot, wet season.This climate is characterized by tall grass and trees which are more numerous near the equatorial forest region.




The savannah region is suitable for herbivores animals such as giraffes, elephants, buffaloes, rhinos, zebras, antelopes, wildebeests and many other animals.

There are also carnivorous animals such as lions, leopards, hyenas, etc. The region also supports a variety of species of birds, reptiles and insects.

People living in this region mainly engage in livestock keeping, cultivation, and tourism. Also, lumbering is practised.




Many tourists come from foreign countries to view the wildlife that lives in the vast grassland. Numerous national parks have been established in this region.

In Tanzania, for example, there are established national parks such as Serengeti, Mikumi, Selous, Tarangire, Ruaha, Saadani, Ngorongoro, Katavi and Manyara.

The major crops grown in this region are maize, millet, groundnuts, beans, onions, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, sisal, rice and coffee.

Tropical monsoon climate




The areas which mainly experience monsoon type of climate are South East Asia, Northern Australia, Southern China, and the Indian subcontinent. This type of climate is most marked in India.

Climatic characteristics

  • Seasonal reversal of winds (monsoon winds); onshore during one season and offshore during another season.
  • Onshore wind brings heavy rain to coastal regions while offshore winds bring little or no rain, except where they cross a wide stretch of the sea.
  • Temperatures range from 32oC in the hot season to about 25oC in the cool season, giving an annual range of about 7oC.
  • Annual rainfall varies greatly, depending on relief and the angle at which onshore winds meet the highlands (aspect).
  • There are three marked seasons: cool, dry season; hot, dry season; and hot, wet season.




This climate can generally be described as having a hot, wet season and a cool, dry season.

The main human activities carried out in areas experiencing this type of climate include rice growing and livestock husbandry. Apart from rice, the other crops grown are wheat, millet, maize, and sorghum.

Sugarcane, cotton, and juice are important lowland crops grown in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

The other crops grown are tea (Sri-lanka, Bangladesh, and India) and rubber in Malaysia. Animals kept in this climatic region include pigs, cattle, buffalos, sheep, goats, and poultry.




Tropical desert climate

The tropical desert climate occurs on the western margins of landmasses between latitude 20o to 30o north and south of the equator. The climate is experienced in all the major tropical deserts of
the world.

The hot deserts occupy about one-third of the earth’s surface. The principal tropical deserts occur on the continents as follows:

Africa: Sahara, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.




Asia: the desert of Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Israel, and the desert of India.

North America: Mohave, Colorado and Mexican Deserts.

South America: Atacama Desert.

Australia: Great Australian Desert

Climatic characteristics

  • Very little total annual rainfall (less than 120 mm in any one year).
  • Mean monthly temperatures range from 29oC in the hot season to 10oC in the cool season.
  • In most deserts, daytime temperature can rise to as high as 47oC or more.
  • Night temperatures can fall to as low as 16oC in summer and 5oC in winter.
  • Very high diurnal temperature range (due to very hot days and very old nights).
  • The annual temperature range is large. It is about 16oC.
  • Humidity is always low and therefore evaporation is high.




Desert environments support very minimal human activities. Wherever water is available as inmoases (singular oasis), and along rivers, agriculture is practised.

The crops grown include date palms, cotton, rice, sugarcane, vines, millet, tomatoes, tobacco and fruits.

Apart from the people who live permanently in oases, there are nomads who move from one place to another in search of pasture. They keep camels, donkeys, goats, and sheep.




The camel is an animal that has adapted to desert conditions. It can survive for many days without drinking water. It is mainly used for transport in the desert.

Other desert people are good hunters and also collect food from the bushes. The other activities that can be done by desert dwellers include weaving mats, making ropes, and trading.

5 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE




The following are characteristics of the intertropical convergences zone

Zone of a low atmosphere pressure: The ITCZ is a band of low atmospheric pressure that encircles the Earth near the equator. This is because the sun’s rays are strongest at the equator, causing the air to heat up and rise. As the air rises, it cools and condenses, forming clouds and rain.

Lies 23 ½ °N and 23 ½ °S: The ITCZ is not always located at the equator. It migrates north and south with the apparent movement of the sun. This is because the sun’s rays are strongest at the Tropic of Cancer (23 ½ °N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23 ½ °S) during the summer months in those hemispheres.

Southeast and North East trade winds converge at it: The ITCZ is formed by the convergence of the Southeast and Northeast trade winds. The Southeast trade winds blow from the southeast towards the equator, while the Northeast trade winds blow from the northeast towards the equator. When these two winds converge, they rise and form clouds and rain.

Associated with convectional rainfall: Convectional rainfall is a type of rainfall that is caused by the rising of warm, moist air. The warm air rises because it is less dense than the surrounding air. As the air rises, it cools and condenses, forming clouds and rain. The ITCZ is associated with convectional rainfall because it is a zone of rising air.

Characterized by high temperatures: The ITCZ is characterized by high temperatures because it is located near the equator, where the sun’s rays are strongest. The average temperature at the ITCZ is around 27 °C (81 °F).

In addition to these characteristics, the ITCZ is also associated with the formation of tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones are a type of storm that forms over warm, tropical waters. They are characterized by strong winds, heavy rain, and low pressure. The ITCZ is a major breeding ground for tropical cyclones.




The ITCZ is an important part of the global climate system. It plays a role in the distribution of rainfall and the formation of tropical cyclones. The ITCZ is also a major source of moisture for the Earth’s atmosphere.

Where should the Intertropical Convergence Zone be located?

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is located near the equator, but it does not stay in one place. It migrates north and south with the apparent movement of the sun. This is because the sun’s rays are strongest at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S) during the summer months in those hemispheres.

During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the ITCZ is located north of the equator, and during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer, it is located south of the equator. The ITCZ is located at its widest point around the time of the equinoxes (March and September).

The ITCZ is a zone of low pressure, so it is associated with rising air and thunderstorms. It is also a major source of moisture for the Earth’s atmosphere. The ITCZ is an important part of the global climate system and plays a role in the distribution of rainfall and the formation of tropical cyclones.

Here are some of the factors that affect the location of the ITCZ:

  • The sun’s angle: The sun’s angle is strongest at the equator, so the ITCZ is located closest to the equator during the summer months in each hemisphere.
  • The Earth’s rotation: The Earth’s rotation causes the ITCZ to bulge out slightly near the equator.
  • The presence of landmasses: Landmasses absorb more heat than oceans, so the ITCZ tends to be located further north or south of the equator over landmasses.
  • The presence of mountains: Mountains can block the movement of air, so the ITCZ tends to be located further from mountains.
  • The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is a climate pattern that affects the temperature of the Pacific Ocean. During El Niño, the ITCZ tends to be located further south of the equator. During La Niña, the ITCZ tends to be located further north of the equator.

The location of the ITCZ can have a significant impact on the climate of a region. For example, the ITCZ is responsible for the wet season in many tropical regions. When the ITCZ is located over a region, it brings warm, moist air from the ocean, which causes heavy rainfall.

The ITCZ is a dynamic system, and its location can change from day to day. However, the general pattern of the ITCZ migrating north and south with the sun’s rays remains the same.

How does ITCZ influence the climate of Africa?

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) has a significant influence on the climate of Africa. It is responsible for the wet season in many parts of the continent, and it also plays a role in the formation of tropical cyclones.

The ITCZ is located near the equator, but it migrates north and south with the sun’s rays. This means that it is located over the continent for most of the year. When the ITCZ is located over Africa, it brings warm, moist air from the Atlantic Ocean. This air rises over the continent, cools, and condenses, forming clouds and rain.

The wet season in Africa is caused by the ITCZ. The wet season is typically from June to September in the northern hemisphere and from December to March in the southern hemisphere. The amount of rainfall that falls during the wet season varies from region to region.

The ITCZ also plays a role in the formation of tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones are a type of storm that forms over warm, tropical waters. They are characterized by strong winds, heavy rain, and low pressure. The ITCZ is a major breeding ground for tropical cyclones.

The ITCZ is an important part of the African climate system. It plays a role in the distribution of rainfall and the formation of tropical cyclones. The ITCZ also affects the temperature and humidity of the continent.

Here are some of the specific ways in which the ITCZ influences the climate of Africa:

  • The wet season: The ITCZ is responsible for the wet season in many parts of Africa. When the ITCZ is located over a region, it brings warm, moist air from the ocean, which causes heavy rainfall. The wet season is typically from June to September in the northern hemisphere and from December to March in the southern hemisphere. The amount of rainfall that falls during the wet season varies from region to region.
  • The dry season: The ITCZ is also responsible for the dry season in many parts of Africa. When the ITCZ moves away from a region, the warm, moist air is replaced by dry air from the Sahara Desert. This causes the dry season, which is typically from October to May in the northern hemisphere and from April to November in the southern hemisphere.
  • The temperature: The ITCZ also affects the temperature of Africa. When the ITCZ is located over a region, it raises the temperature. This is because the warm, moist air from the ocean brings heat to the region.
  • The humidity: The ITCZ also affects the humidity of Africa. When the ITCZ is located over a region, it increases the humidity. This is because the warm, moist air from the ocean holds a lot of water vapor.
  • The formation of tropical cyclones: The ITCZ is also a major breeding ground for tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones are a type of storm that forms over warm, tropical waters. They are characterized by strong winds, heavy rain, and low pressure. The ITCZ is a major breeding ground for tropical cyclones because it provides the warm, moist air that these storms need to form.

The ITCZ is a dynamic system, and its location can change from day to day. However, the general pattern of the ITCZ migrating north and south with the sun’s rays remains the same.

The ITCZ is an important part of the African climate system, and it plays a significant role in the distribution of rainfall, temperature, and humidity on the continent.

How is the ITCZ affected by climate change?


Climate change is expected to have a significant impact on the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ is a band of low pressure that encircles the Earth near the equator. It is responsible for the wet season in many parts of the tropics, and it also plays a role in the formation of tropical cyclones.

Climate change is expected to cause the ITCZ to shift northward. This is because the Earth’s atmosphere is warming, which is causing the air to expand. As the air expands, it becomes less dense, and this causes the ITCZ to move to higher altitudes. The higher altitude air is cooler, so it can hold less moisture. This means that the wet season in the tropics is expected to become shorter and less intense.

Climate change is also expected to cause the ITCZ to become wider. This is because the warmer air can hold more moisture, so there will be more water vapor in the atmosphere. This water vapor will condense and form clouds, which will cause the ITCZ to become wider. The wider ITCZ will bring more rain to some areas, but it will also bring more drought to others.

Climate change is also expected to cause the ITCZ to become more erratic. This is because the warmer air will be less stable, so the ITCZ will be more likely to shift position. This erratic behavior will make it difficult to predict when and where the wet season will occur.

The impact of climate change on the ITCZ is a major concern for many countries in the tropics. These countries are already experiencing the effects of climate change, and they are concerned about how these effects will be exacerbated by the ITCZ shift.

Here are some of the specific ways in which climate change is expected to affect the ITCZ:

  • The ITCZ is expected to shift northward: This is because the Earth’s atmosphere is warming, which is causing the air to expand. As the air expands, it becomes less dense, and this causes the ITCZ to move to higher altitudes. The higher altitude air is cooler, so it can hold less moisture. This means that the wet season in the tropics is expected to become shorter and less intense.
  • The ITCZ is expected to become wider: This is because the warmer air can hold more moisture, so there will be more water vapor in the atmosphere. This water vapor will condense and form clouds, which will cause the ITCZ to become wider. The wider ITCZ will bring more rain to some areas, but it will also bring more drought to others.
  • The ITCZ is expected to become more erratic: This is because the warmer air will be less stable, so the ITCZ will be more likely to shift position. This erratic behavior will make it difficult to predict when and where the wet season will occur.

The impact of climate change on the ITCZ is a major concern for many countries in the tropics. These countries are already experiencing the effects of climate change, and they are concerned about how these effects will be exacerbated by the ITCZ shift.

There are a number of things that can be done to mitigate the impact of climate change on the ITCZ. These include:

  • Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: This is the most important thing that can be done to slow the pace of climate change.
  • Adapting to the impacts of climate change: This includes measures such as developing drought-resistant crops and building sea walls to protect coastal communities from flooding.
  • Investing in research: This will help us to better understand the impact of climate change on the ITCZ and to develop effective mitigation and adaptation measures.

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8 FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE DEPOSITION




Factors influencing wave deposition

  • Strong swash wash and a weak backwash
  • Gentle gradient  of the shore
  • Change in the alignment of coastline
  • Shallow ocean depth




6 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FRINGING REEFS AND BARRIER REEFS




A coral reef is a limestone rock which is made up of skeletons of small living organisms called polyps.

The formation of coral reefs is highly attributed to the presence of calcium carbonate in the skeletons of polyps.

When the polyps die, their skeletons which contain calcium carbonate are compacted together to form a coral rock.




In East Africa, they are only found along the East African coast.

there are three types of coral reef namely: fringing reef, barrier reef, and atoll.

fringing reefs grow near the coastline around islands and continents. they are separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons. fringing reefs are the most common type of reef.




difference between fringing reefs and barrier reefs
Photo by Belle Co on Pexels.com

barrier reefs are also parallel to the coastlines but are separated by deeper, wider lagoons. at their shallowest points, they can reach the water’s surface forming a barrier to navigation




Differences between the fringing reef and barrier reef

  • Fringing reef is joined to the mainland while the barrier reef is separated from the mainland.
  • A fringing reef is separated from the mainland by a narrow lagoon while a barrier reef is separated from the mainland by a wide lagoon.
  • A fringing reef is near the coast while the barrier reef is far away from the coast.
  • A fringing reef is exposed at low tide while a barrier reef is never exposed at a low tide.




  • Accumulated material of a fringing reef lies at shallow depth while accumulated material of a barrier reef lies at great depth.
  • A fringing reef has a narrow platform while a barrier reef has a wider platform.
  • The lagoon of a fringing reef may disappear but the lagoon of a barrier reef is permanent.

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11 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT IN SAVANNA REGIONS




The following are Economic activities that can be carried out in savannah regions

  • Crop growing i.e.  Annual/seasonal crops are grown e.g. maize, millet, groundnuts beans, and cotton due to seasonal rainfall.
  • The natural vegetation in the savannah consists of mainly grasslands that favour livestock rearing.
  • Lumbering has also been carried out in savannah from the woodlands.
  • The Savannah grasslands provide a natural habitat for many species of wild life which forms the basis for the tourism industry.
  • Due to agriculture that takes place in the savannah, development of processing and manufacturing industries has been made possible. E.g. grain mills, ginneries for cotton, milk processing plants e.t.c.
  • Charcoal burning and extraction of wood fuel also has been favoured in the savannah due to the existence of woodlands.




  • Hunting of animals has also been favoured in the savannah due to the existence of the wild animals.
  • Bee keeping can also survive in the savannah woodlands.

7 FACTORS FOR LOCATION, GROWTH, AND DEVELOPMENT OF ROTTERDAM PORT




A port is an area at the coast handling imports, exports, passengers connecting the interior of the coast and other countries.

Rotterdam’s port is found in the Netherlands. Holland at the North Sea and mouth of R. Rhine.




It is called Euro port because it’s used in the month it is used by European countries in the Rhine lands like Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg.

It is called an eater port because of handling many ports and it serves the most productive industrialized and developed areas of Western Europe.

It was constructed by Holland with assistance from other European Union member countries.




Factors for the location, growth, and development of Rotterdam port

  • Hard basement rocks composed of granite, quartz helping in the construction of buildings, transport, and routes.
  • Presence of natural harbours well sheltered from strong waves because of headlands, islands, bays, gulf.
  • Presence of deep waters accommodating big ships carrying exports, imports like the oil tankers.
  • Flat and gentle slopes helping in construction, transport and drainage.
  • Strategic location near the North Sea and mouth of R. Rhine making it good for navigation for the Rhineland countries.
  • Rich and productive hinterland with a lot of exports and imports like minerals, fish, timber.




  • Extensive land for its expansion around R. Rhine and the North Sea.
  • A climate like frost-free conditions making it operational throughout the year.
  • Limited physical obstacles like rocks, swampy vegetation, relief feature making it easily approachable for navigation.
  • Low tidal range leading to weak waves reducing on accidents and easy landing of ships.
  • Improved transport like the construction of roads, canals, railways, airports reducing on congestion and leading to easy connection and bringing a lot of exports and imports.
  • Good international relations and corporation by European countries helping in marketing, construction and maintenance.
  • Large capital base produced by Rhineland countries for investment in the port.
  • Improved science and technology helping in its maintenance, improving infrastructure, economic activities and social services.




  • Positive and supportive government policies like gazetting areas, providing capital and helping in marketing.
  • Improved social services like power and water supply, health facilities attracting people for settlement and economic activities.
  • Increased population density and insecurity in Europe leading to favourable investment climate and diverting resources to economic activities, infrastructure.
  • Presence of economic activities like shipbuilding, oil mining attracting dense population.




  • Presence of entrepreneurs and big companies like shipping lines, clearing agents, providing capital and good management.
  • Mining, fishing, forestry due to the presence of natural resources leading to many economic activities.

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