Doha amendment to Kyoto protocol

1) The Kyoto Protocol signed in 1997, is an international treaty that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.




2) Under the Kyoto Protocol, industrialized nations agreed to cut their greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels.

3) It is operational since 2005.

4) A group of rich and industrialized countries were assigned emission reduction targets with the first commitment period of 2005-2012.

5) The Doha amendment was made to Kyoto protocol in 2012 to extend the obligations of the developed countries for the second commitment period of 2012-2020.




6) It requires ratification from a total of 144 of the 192 parties of the Kyoto Protocol to become operational.

7) As only 75 countries have so far ratified the Doha amendments it could not be enforced.

8) China, Poland, Australia, Mexico, South Africa, Indonesia are some of the countries that ratified the Doha amendments.




9) India is expected to ratify it this month.

10) the US has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol and Canada withdrew from the Kyoto protocol in 2012.

Importance of insurance for businesses

  • Transfers the risk from the business/insured to an insurance company/insurer.
  • Transfer of risk is subject to the terms and conditions of the insurance contract.
  • Protects businesses against dishonest employees.
  • Protects businesses against losses due to death of a debtor.
  • Protects the business against theft/loss of stock and/or damages caused by natural disasters such as
  • floods, storm damage, etc.
  • Protects businesses from claims made by members of the public for damages that the business is responsible for.
  • Businesses will be compensated for insurable losses, e.g. destruction of property through fire.
  • Businesses assets, e.g. vehicles/equipment/buildings need to be insured against damage and/or theft.
  • Businesses are protected against the loss of earnings, e.g. strikes by employees which result in losses worth millions.
  • Life insurance can be taken on the life of partners in a partnership to prevent unexpected loss of capital.
  • Should the services of key personnel be lost due to accidents/death, the proceeds of an insurance policy can be paid out to the business/beneficiaries.
  • Replacement costs for damaged machinery/equipment are very high, therefore insurance can reduce/cover such costs.

11 Aspects that should be included in employment contract

Employment contract is an agreement between the employer and the employee and is legally binding.

Aspects that should be included in an employment contract

Personal details of the employee: This should include the employee’s full name, date of birth, address, and contact information.

Details of the business/employer: This should include the employer’s name, address, and contact information. It should also state the type of business and the industry in which it operates.

Job title/Position: This should clearly state the employee’s job title and position within the company.

Job description: This should provide a detailed description of the employee’s duties and responsibilities. It should also include information about the working conditions, such as the hours of work, the dress code, and the safety requirements.

Job specification: This should list the qualifications and experience required for the job. It may also include information about the employee’s willingness to travel or to work overtime.

Date of employment/commencement of employment: This should state the date on which the employee will start work.

Place where employee will spend most of his/her working time: This should state the location of the employee’s workplace.

Hours of work, e.g. normal time/overtime: This should state the number of hours that the employee is expected to work each week, as well as the overtime pay rate.

Remuneration, e.g. weekly or monthly pay: This should state the employee’s salary or wages, as well as any other forms of compensation, such as bonuses or commissions.

Benefits/Fringe benefits/Perks/Allowances: This should list all of the benefits that the employee is entitled to, such as health insurance, paid vacation, and retirement plans.

Leave, e.g. sick/maternity/annual/adoption leave: This should state the employee’s entitlement to sick leave, maternity leave, annual leave, and any other types of leave.

Employee deductions (compulsory/non-compulsory): This should list any deductions that will be made from the employee’s salary, such as taxes, insurance, and union dues.

Period of contract/Details of termination: This should state the length of the employment contract and the conditions under which the contract can be terminated.

Probation period: This should state the length of the employee’s probationary period and the conditions under which the employee can be terminated during this period.

Signatures of both the employer and employee: Both the employer and the employee should sign the employment contract to indicate their agreement to its terms.

List of documents that form part of the contract, e.g. appointment letter/code of conduct/ethics: This should list any other documents that form part of the employment contract, such as the employee’s appointment letter, the company’s code of conduct, or the company’s ethics policy.

Disciplinary policy, e.g. rules and disciplinary procedure for unacceptable behavior: This should state the company’s disciplinary policy, including the rules of conduct and the disciplinary procedures that will be followed for unacceptable behavior.

In addition to these aspects, an employment contract may also include other terms and conditions, such as the employee’s right to privacy, the company’s intellectual property rights, and the employee’s obligations in the event of a conflict of interest.

It is important to note that the specific terms and conditions of an employment contract will vary depending on the individual circumstances. However, the aspects listed above are some of the most common and important terms that should be included in any employment contract.

RELATED POSTS

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF UNIT TRUSTS

Advantages of unit trust

  • Managed by a fund manager who buys shares on the stock exchange/JSE.
  • Easy to cash in when an investor needs money.
  • A small amount can be invested per month.
  • Generally beats inflation on the medium/long term.
  • Safe investments, as it is managed according to rules and regulations.
  • The investor has a variety to choose from/a wider range of shares from lower to higher degrees of risk.
  • Easy to invest in, as investors simply complete a few relevant forms or invest online.
  • Fluctuations in unit trust rates of return are often not so severe because of diversity of the investment fund.
  • Offer competitive returns in the form of capital growth and dividend distribution.
  • Fund managers are knowledgeable/experts/reliable/trustworthy as they are required to be accredited to sell unit trusts.

Disadvantages of unit trust

  • Share price may fluctuate
  • Unit Trusts are not allowed to borrow, therefore reducing potential returns.
  • Not good for people who want to invest for a short period
  • Not good for people who want to avoid risks at all costs.
  • If blue chip companies do not continue on their growth path, the growth of unit trusts will also be affected and will not render the expected returns.
  • Bid/Ask prices exist with the price that you can buy a unit for usually higher than the price you can sell it for making investment less liquid.

7 ADVANTAGES AND 8 DISADVANTAGES OF ORTHOPHOTO MAPS

the orthophoto was first made from many vertical aerial photograph that partly covered one another. this was done to create scale correct images.




orthophoto maps are created by adding map information to the orthophotos

an orthophoto map is the combination of map and a photograph.

it has a large scale (1:10,000) than the topographical map, so features appear larger.

it is more representative of the reality than the topgraphical map




orthophoto maps can have contour lines superimposed on them to provide a sense of the relief of the landscape. in this way they can provide critical information about where to build or to assess areas most at risk during flooding

advantages of orthophoto maps

  • orthophoto maps have large scale of 1:10000 so features can be seen quite easily
  • othophoto mapping is quick and easy to use for updating maps
  • most urban areas and major growth point are covered
  • Accuracy: Orthophoto maps are very accurate, with a ground sample distance (GSD) of typically less than 1 meter. This makes them ideal for applications that require precise measurements, such as land surveying and engineering.
  • Up-to-date: Orthophoto maps can be updated quickly and easily, which makes them a valuable tool for emergency response and disaster management.
  • Scalability: Orthophoto maps can be scaled to different sizes, making them suitable for a variety of applications.
  • Engineering: Orthophoto maps can be used to plan and design infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, and pipelines. They can also be used to monitor the construction of these projects and to identify any problems that may arise.
  • Environmental monitoring: Orthophoto maps can be used to monitor the environment. They can be used to track changes in land use, to identify areas of deforestation, and to assess the impact of climate change.
  • Consistency: Orthophoto maps are consistent with each other, which makes them easy to use for comparing different areas or tracking changes over time.

disadvantages of orthophoto maps




  • Limited availability: Orthophoto maps may not be available for all areas or for all purposes.
  • new full colour orthophoto image has been made available to the general public only recently so are difficult to get
  • Interpretability: Orthophoto maps can be difficult to interpret, especially for people who are not familiar with them. This is because they can be very detailed and complex.
  • Accuracy: Orthophoto maps can be accurate, but they are not always perfect. There may be some errors in the data, which can affect the accuracy of the map.
  • Data requirements: Orthophoto maps require a lot of data, which can be a limiting factor in some cases.
  • Time to create: Orthophoto maps can take time to create, especially if they cover a large area.
  • Cost: Orthophoto maps can be expensive to create and purchase

Despite these disadvantages, orthophoto maps are a valuable tool for a wide range of applications. They are accurate, detailed, and up-to-date, making them a versatile and powerful tool for anyone who needs accurate maps.

Here are some tips for overcoming the disadvantages of orthophoto maps:

  • Consider the cost and time required to create and purchase orthophoto maps before making a decision.
  • If possible, choose orthophoto maps that are created from high-quality data.
  • Be aware of the limitations of orthophoto maps and interpret them accordingly.
  • If necessary, use other types of maps in conjunction with orthophoto maps to get a more complete picture of an area.

What are the characteristics of an orthophoto map?

Here are some of the characteristics of orthophoto maps:

  • Accuracy: Orthophoto maps are very accurate, with a ground sample distance (GSD) of typically less than 1 meter. This makes them ideal for applications that require precise measurements, such as land surveying and engineering.
  • Detail: Orthophoto maps can show a high level of detail, making them useful for applications such as urban planning and environmental monitoring.
  • Consistency: Orthophoto maps are consistent with each other, which makes them easy to use for comparing different areas or tracking changes over time.
  • Up-to-date: Orthophoto maps can be updated quickly and easily, which makes them a valuable tool for emergency response and disaster management.
  • Scalability: Orthophoto maps can be scaled to different sizes, making them suitable for a variety of applications.
  • Orthorectification: Orthophoto maps are orthorectified, which means that they have been corrected for the effects of terrain relief. This means that the features on the map are represented in their true positions, regardless of the elevation of the terrain.
  • Single perspective: Orthophoto maps have a single perspective, which means that they are not distorted by the camera lens. This makes them easy to interpret and use for measurements.
  • Continuous tone: Orthophoto maps have a continuous tone, which means that they show a smooth transition between different shades of gray. This makes them ideal for applications that require the accurate depiction of features, such as urban planning and environmental monitoring.

Overall, orthophoto maps are a valuable tool for a wide range of applications. They are accurate, detailed, up-to-date, and scalable, making them a versatile and powerful tool for anyone who needs accurate maps.

What is the main difference between orthophoto and air photos?

Both orthophoto and air photos are types of aerial photography that are used to create maps. However, there are some key differences between the two.

Orthophoto maps are created by taking multiple aerial photographs of the same area and then correcting for distortions caused by the camera lens and the Earth’s curvature. This means that the features on an orthophoto map are represented in their true positions, regardless of the elevation of the terrain. Orthophoto maps are also typically more accurate than air photos, with a ground sample distance (GSD) of typically less than 1 meter.

Air photos are simply photographs taken from an aircraft. They are not corrected for distortions caused by the camera lens or the Earth’s curvature, which means that the features on an air photo may not be in their true positions. Air photos are also typically less accurate than orthophoto maps, with a GSD of typically 1-2 meters.

Here is a table summarizing the key differences between orthophoto maps and air photos:

FeatureOrthophoto MapAir Photo
Distortion correctionYesNo
AccuracyHighLow
Ground sample distance (GSD)Typically less than 1 meterTypically 1-2 meters
Use casesApplications that require precise measurements, such as land surveying and engineeringApplications that do not require precise measurements, such as planning and design

What type of scale does the orthophoto map have?

An orthophoto map is a type of map created by taking multiple aerial photographs of the same area and then correcting for distortions caused by the camera lens and the Earth’s curvature. The scale of an orthophoto map is typically expressed as a ratio of the distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. For example, an orthophoto map with a scale of 1:10,000 means that every 1 cm on the map corresponds to 10,000 cm (100 m) on the ground.

The scale of an orthophoto map can vary depending on the size of the area being mapped and the desired level of detail. For example, an orthophoto map of a small area, such as a city block, may have a scale of 1:1,000, while an orthophoto map of a large area, such as a state or country, may have a scale of 1:100,000 or even 1:1,000,000.

The scale of an orthophoto map is important to consider when using the map for planning or navigation purposes. For example, if you are planning to build a house, you will need to use an orthophoto map with a scale that is detailed enough to show the location of your property and the surrounding area.

Here are some of the factors that affect the scale of an orthophoto map:

  • The size of the area being mapped: The larger the area being mapped, the smaller the scale of the map will need to be.
  • The desired level of detail: The more detail you want the map to show, the larger the scale of the map will need to be.
  • The technology used to create the map: The technology used to create the map can also affect the scale of the map. For example, maps created using satellite imagery typically have a smaller scale than maps created using aerial photography.

Overall, the scale of an orthophoto map is an important factor to consider when using the map for planning or navigation purposes. By understanding the scale of the map, you can ensure that you are using the map correctly and that you are getting the information you need.

Difference between financial accounting and bookkeeping

Distinction between Book-keeping and Accounting

1. Output of book-keeping is an input for
accounting while Output of accounting permit informed judgements and decisions by the user of accounting information.

2. Purpose of book-keeping is to keep systematic record of transactions and events of financial character in order of its occurrence while Purpose of accounting is to find results of operating activity of business and to report
financial strength of business.

3. Book-keeping is a foundation of accounting while Accounting is considered as a language of business.
4. Book-keeping is carried out by junior staff While Accounting is done by senior staff with skill of analysis and interpretation.

5. Objects of book-keeping is to summarize the cumulative effect of all economic transactions of business for a given period by maintaining permanent record of each business transaction with its evidence and financial effects on accounting variable while Object of accounting is not only bookkeeping but also analyzing and interpreting reported financial information for informed decisions.

RELATED POSTS

9 effects of urban heat island

A heat island is the hotter area of the city surrounded by cooler urban fringe and rural areas




The higher urban temperature causes an urban heat island to develop over the city.

This heat island reaches its greatest intensity above the city center and diminishes towards the suburbs.

Within this heat island, the air is less dense and begins to rise. Cooler air from the suburbs moves in to replace this.




Urban heat islands exist throughout the year, but their effects are more pronounced at night and in the winter when temperatures are lower. This is also the situation when there is anticyclonic subsidence of air.

The following are the effects of urban heat island

  • increase human discomfort especially in summer
  • reduce ice and snow in winter, which is positive
  • increase biological activities, for example, growing season length, which is positive




  • cause heat stress and death during heat waves
  • increase conditions suitable for the spread of diseases caused by insects such as mosquitoes and fleas
  • increase smog
  • reduce visibility due to smog, particulary in winter
  • increase air conditioner use leading to release of more heat and green house gases, which degrade local air quality

Features of urban heat island during the day and night

During the day

  • heat result in increased turbulance, thus a relative decrease in the stability of the lower atmosphere
  • heat island grow vertically and therefore is less concentrated
  • pollution os dispersed over a great area




During the night

  • as it is cooler during the night the height decreases and is more concentrated
  • the ‘heat bubble’ is now denser and shallower and takes on the dome shae due to cooling of air
  • pollution is concentrated in the dome

How can the heat island effect be reduced

the reduction of urban heat islands depends on a number of factors. some of them are within and some outside the community control.




climate conditions and the relief can not be changed. decision-makers can select energy-saving strategies that will create a healthier and more sustainable environment.

creating urban green spaces like parks and roof gardens, appropriate building design, and encouraging the use of public transport can contribute to reducing the effects of the urban heat islands.




%d bloggers like this: