11 FACTORS THAT HAVE FAVOURED THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AKASOMBO DAM PROJECT IN GHANA




The Akasombo dam project was opened in 1966 and was built across the volta river where the river passes through the narrow gorge.

The project was funded by Ghana, the United States of America, Britain, and the world bank.

The following are factors which have favored the establishment of the Akasombo dam project:

  • Presence of skilled labor used in the construction and maintenance of dam project
  • The high level of technology employed to put up the project, provided especially by Britain and the USA such as the use of large turbines to generate power




  • The presence of a large market for power in the surrounding countries, which encouraged investment in the dam projects.
  • The seasonal fluctuation of the Volta and therefore the need to regulate the flow such as control of flooding during the rainy season.
  • There was a need to generate hydroelectric power to replace thermal, which was consuming a lot of foreign exchange through oil imports
  • presence of narrow gorge (deep narrow valley) for easy construction of the dam
  • presence of waterfalls hence the fast flow of water to turn turbines
  • presence of hard basement rock which provided a firm foundation for the construction of the dam




  • The presence of extensive land behind the hills was due to the sparse population, which could accommodate a large reservoir behind the dam.

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7 WAYS OF CONSERVING THE FISHERIES

Fisheries play a vital role in global food security, economies, and ecosystems. They involve the capture, cultivation, and management of aquatic organisms, primarily fish, for human consumption and other purposes. However, due to factors such as overfishing, habitat destruction, and climate change, many fisheries are facing sustainability challenges. As a result, effective fisheries management and conservation are essential to ensure the long-term viability of these valuable resources.




The following are ways in which the Kenyan government should conserve fisheries:

1. Licensing Fishermen to Control Their Number (Preventing Overfishing)

Licensing fishermen and regulating their numbers is a fundamental approach to conserve fisheries and prevent overfishing. By limiting the number of fishermen allowed to operate in a given area, authorities can control fishing pressure and reduce the risk of depleting fish populations. Licensing also provides a means of tracking and monitoring fishing activities, allowing for better management of catch limits. This method helps maintain a balance between the fishing capacity and the sustainable yield of the ecosystem. Moreover, licensing can incentivize responsible fishing practices, as fishermen become invested in the long-term health of the resource to protect their livelihoods. Collaborative efforts between governmental agencies, fishing communities, and conservation organizations are crucial to effectively implement and enforce licensing systems.

2. Restricting Fishing to Specific Seasons (Allowing Breeding and Maturing of Fish)

Implementing fishing seasons is another effective way to conserve fisheries. By designating specific periods during which fishing is allowed and restricted, authorities can protect fish during their breeding and spawning periods. This approach ensures that fish populations have the opportunity to reproduce and replenish before being harvested. This cyclic management strategy supports the natural lifecycle of fish and allows young individuals to grow and mature. Properly timed fishing seasons maintain the balance between harvest and replenishment, promoting the sustainability of fisheries. However, effective enforcement and monitoring are essential to prevent illegal fishing during restricted periods.

3. Enforcing International Conventions (Protecting Endangered Fish Species)

Global cooperation through international conventions is essential to conserve fisheries and protect endangered fish species. Collaborative agreements, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), regulate the trade of endangered species and their products. These agreements establish rules for the sustainable harvest and trade of fish to prevent overexploitation. Enforcing such conventions involves coordination among countries to ensure that fishing practices and trade comply with established guidelines. Protecting endangered species contributes to maintaining biodiversity and the overall health of marine ecosystems.

4. Restocking Overfished Waters (Breeding Fingerlings in Fish Farms)

Restocking overfished waters involves breeding fish in controlled environments, such as fish farms, and releasing young fish (fingerlings) into natural habitats. This practice helps replenish depleted populations and support the recovery of fisheries. Fish farms provide a controlled environment for optimal growth and survival of fingerlings, which can then be strategically released into areas where fish populations are struggling. Proper selection of species, genetic diversity, and careful consideration of ecological compatibility are crucial to the success of restocking efforts. Monitoring the survival and integration of released fish back into the wild is vital for assessing the effectiveness of these initiatives.

5. Use of Standard-Sized Nets (Catching Only Mature Fish)

The use of standardized fishing gear, including nets with specific mesh sizes, is a practical method to ensure that only mature fish are caught while allowing juveniles to escape. By catching only mature fish, this practice supports sustainable fishing by allowing young individuals to reproduce and contribute to the next generation. Regulating net size prevents the capture of undersized fish and non-target species, reducing bycatch and overall ecosystem impact. However, effective enforcement and compliance monitoring are essential to ensure that fishermen adhere to these regulations, as well as to prevent the use of illegal, smaller mesh sizes that can harm fish populations and ecosystems.




Restricting the Disposal of Untreated Wastes into Fisheries to Avoid Pollution

Conserving fisheries is crucial to maintain marine ecosystems, livelihoods, and global food security. One effective way to achieve this is by imposing restrictions on the disposal of untreated wastes into fisheries to prevent pollution. This measure addresses the harmful effects of anthropogenic activities on aquatic environments.

Untreated waste disposal, such as industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and domestic sewage, can introduce pollutants like heavy metals, chemicals, and pathogens into water bodies. These pollutants can disrupt the delicate balance of marine ecosystems, leading to the deterioration of water quality, reduced oxygen levels, and the decline of fish populations. By implementing regulations that limit or prohibit the disposal of untreated wastes into fisheries, governments and relevant authorities can significantly mitigate these negative impacts.

To successfully implement this approach, several steps can be taken. First, comprehensive waste management policies must be formulated, clearly outlining the types of wastes that are prohibited from being disposed of directly into fisheries. Second, proper infrastructure for waste treatment and disposal should be established, ensuring that waste is treated before being released into water bodies. Third, public awareness campaigns can educate communities and industries about the importance of responsible waste disposal and its impact on fisheries and aquatic ecosystems. Regular monitoring and enforcement of regulations are essential to ensure compliance and deter any violations.

Monitoring or Discouraging the Entry of Foreign Fishermen off the Indian Ocean Water

The protection and sustainable management of fisheries in the Indian Ocean waters are critical for maintaining the region’s biodiversity, food security, and economic stability. One significant way to conserve these fisheries is by monitoring and, if necessary, discouraging the entry of foreign fishermen into these waters.

Foreign fishermen can put additional pressure on already vulnerable fish stocks, leading to overfishing and depletion of marine resources. This can have serious consequences for local communities that rely on fishing for their livelihoods and for the health of the marine ecosystem as a whole. Monitoring the entry of foreign fishermen involves establishing robust surveillance systems that track fishing activities and enforce fishing quotas and regulations. This can be achieved through satellite technology, vessel monitoring systems, and collaboration between countries sharing the Indian Ocean waters.

Discouraging the entry of foreign fishermen can involve diplomatic negotiations, agreements, and cooperation between nations. Implementing joint management strategies and resource-sharing arrangements can help ensure that fishing activities are sustainable and equitable. By collaborating with neighboring countries, sharing scientific data, and harmonizing regulations, nations can work together to safeguard their fisheries.

In conclusion, both restricting the disposal of untreated wastes and monitoring foreign fishermen’s activities are essential strategies for conserving fisheries in the Indian Ocean. These measures contribute to maintaining the health of marine ecosystems, protecting local livelihoods, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of fish populations. Effective implementation, supported by robust policies, international cooperation, and public awareness, is key to achieving successful conservation outcomes.

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DEFINITION OF HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE




what is hydrological cycle?

within the drainage basin, there is a hydrological cycle with hydrological processes

The hydrological cycle is the endless circulation of water from the ocean into the atmosphere through evaporation, back to the land in the form of rain again into the ocean in the form of surface run off

in other words the hydrological cycle describes the circulation of water from hydrosphere (ocean), atmosphere and lithosphere (land) in a great series of continuous interchange of both geographical position and physical state

every day about 1400000 million metre cubic of water are evaporated from the earth surfaces.




1050000 million metre cubic of water reprecipitate into the ocean and 350000 millions metre cubic of water reprecipitate on lands surfaces eventually flow back into the oceans

such water movement is driven by solar energy (the heat derived by the earth from the sun) because this energy is necessary to bring about important changes in the physical state and geographical position of the enormous amount of water in the cycle

water exist in three states; solid (ice), liquid (rain) and gas (water vapour).

the water is ever moving through a series of processes called the water cycle

generally speaking, the water cycle describes the movement and storage of water among the four main sectors of the earth system




  • the atmosphere
  • the biosphere
  • the lithosphere
  • the hydrosphere

the water cycle itself is a closed system, because no material is lost

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9 OBJECTIVES OF AKASOMBO DAM PROJECT IN GHANA




The Akasombo dam project was opened in 1966 and was built across the Volta river where the river passes through the narrow gorge.

The project was funded by Ghana, the United States of America, Britain, and the world bank.

The following are the objectives of Akasombo dam project:

  • to store water for industrial and domestic use
  • to improve agriculture by providing water for irrigation
  • to improve inland water transport or navigation




  • to control and regulate the flow of river Volta which is characterized by seasonal fluctuations in the water level
  • to generate hydroelectric power especially for melting aluminium and other industries

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4 TYPES OF GROUND WATER




Ground or subterranean water is water that is found below the earth’s surface. Groundwater is simply water under the ground where the soil is completely filled or saturated with water. This water is also called an “aquifer.”

4 types of ground water

The following are four types of  ground water:

Connate water

It may also refer as fossil water. This is water trapped in the pores of the rock during the formation of rocks.




The chemical composition of water changes with the changes that the rock undergoes. Most connate water is saline.

4 types of ground water

Meteoric water

This refers to groundwater that originates from rainfall and other forms of precipitation such as hailstorms and snowfall. It is the result of precipitation water seeping into the ground




4 types of ground water

Juvenile water

It is also referred to as magmatic water. This is water that is brought closer to the earth’s surface due to volcanic activities. It usually has high mineral content




4 types of ground water

Oceanic water

This is groundwater that results from the seepage of groundwater into the ground. It is common in the coastal areas where ocean water seeps horizontally into the ground from the ocean

Sources of Ground Water

Rain Water

Some rainwater percolates and is trapped after meeting an impermeable rock.

Melt Water

Water that infiltrates into the ground when snow melts during spring and summer.

Surface Water




Water from rivers, seas, swamps, oceans, lakes, and ponds that seep into the ground.

Magmatic/Plutonic Water

Water trapped in rocks beneath the surface during vulcanicity

Springs

Place where water flows out naturally onto the earth‟s surface along a slope.

Ways/Modes Formation

Hillside Spring

Type formed where a permeable rock lies above an impermeable one on a hill and water comes out at the junction of those two rock layers.




Dyke Spring

Type formed where an igneous dike cuts across a layer of permeable rock.

  • Groundwater on the upslope side is trapped causing the water table on that side to rise.
  • A spring develops where the water table is exposed on the surface.

Vauclusian Spring

Type formed on a limestone hill or escarpment overlying an impermeable layer.

  • Limestone rock becomes saturated with water.
  • Water comes out of the ground where water table appears on the surface.

Valley Spring




Type formed where the water table intersects the surface along the side of the valley.

Artesian Basins

Saucer-shaped depression consists of a layer of permeable rock sandwiched between two impermeable rocks and the whole system forms a syncline.

Characteristics

  • One or both ends are exposed on the surface on a rainy area or beneath a lake.
  • Water enters at the exposed end or ends.
  • With time the permeable rock is saturated with water and becomes an aquifer e.g. between Chad and Egypt across Quattara depression.




Artesian well

Well sunk into the aquifer of an artesian basin from which water will come out without being pumped.

Problems Associated With Artesian Wells

  • Water may be hot due to high temperatures.
  • Water may be salty because water takes a long to percolate through rocks thus dissolving large quantities of mineral salts.
  • Water may fail to come out naturally when water is drawn faster than it’s being replaced in the source region and necessitating pumping

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7 BENEFITS OF RUFIJI RIVER BASIN IN TANZANIA




Rufiji basin development is found in Tanzania, the government of Tanzania organized the development to support economic activities of the people.

Benefits of Rufiji Basin development:

  • It has promoted the market for the Hydro Electric Power (HEP) from Kidatu power plant.
  • There has been flood control.
  • The scheme has stimulated the development and maintenance of the railway lines and roads.
  • It has lead to the creation of employment opportunities in the valley.
  • It has promoted living standards of people through employment.
  • The development of villages and towns, for example new towns like Kidatu, Makambako and Mikumi.
  • The company provides expert advice to the farmers on good farming techniques and solutions to their farming problems.




Image result for RUFIJI BASIN




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8 BENEFITS OF THE TENNESSEE RIVER VALLEY AUTHORITY




By 1930 there was massive deforestation followed with poor farming methods in southern USA.

This resulted in severe gulley erosion and the soils eroded from the slopes were deposited into river Tennessee and other rivers like Ohio and Cumberland.

This swallowed the river for navigation and resulted in flooding. The floods damaged people`s crops and led to the loss of lives as far as the lower Mississippi.

This isolated the area from other parts of the USA making it underdeveloped.




In order to rehabilitate the area, the Tennessee valley authority was set up by then-president Roosevelt was to supervise and coordinate the projects that were set up in the area.

Tennessee river valley is found in the U.S.A and is a tributary of the Ohio river, the government of the U.S.A organized the development of the valley with the general aim of solving the economic difficulties of the people.




Benefits of Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA):

  • There has been increase in the water supply for irrigation, domestic use and industrial use.
  • Navigation in the Tennessee river has improved such as the commercial freight ships operating in the river.
  • Hydroelectric power was made available to many people.
  • The floods have highly been controlled.
  • The project has created job opportunities for many people.
  • Increase on the size of the arable land due to soil control.
  • Provision of hydroelectric power has led to the development of different manufacturing and heavy industries.
  • There was stimulation of industrial development for example aluminum smelting at Chattanooga, paper milling and printing at Calhoun as well as textiles at Alcoa together with agro-processing industries and fish processing industries
  • The success of the scheme made it a model scheme for other schemes in the country s well as other countries for example lessons learned at the Tennessee valley authority were instrumental in the California water transfer scheme.
  • Government revenue through taxing the various industries and the workers in the different industries and other projects which were set up in the area. Such money is used to set up various social and economic infrastructure.
  • There was increase in food production due to the increase in land under cultivation as well as theprovision of irrigation water
  • The success of the project especially reforestation and afforestation programs helped to modify the climate of the area through the high evaporation, as well as evapotranspiration rates, experience in the area.
  • There was development of tourism due to various attractions that were created as a result of the Tennessee valley authority for example the various dams and their architectural types, manmade lakes, the power houses and other attractions that came up as a result of the project
  • Foreign exchange is acquired after the export of power to neighboring countries like Mexico as well as export of agricultural products from the numerous farms that were put up through te provision of irrigation water
  • The project stimulated inland fishing activities from the numerous manmade lakes as well as rivers. This made the to possess a cheap source of animal proteins ad also employed a number of them through thefishing activities
  • There was the development of towns and urban centers in the area that was formerly rural underdeveloped and some parts abandoned. Such towns started off as small trading centers that attracted various industries as well as modern infrastructures leading to the attraction of more people in the area. They are now bigger towns with modern infrastructures for example Knoxville, Colbert, Kingston, Chattanooga, Guntersville.

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