6 CRITERIA USED IN SOIL CLASSIFICATION




Soil classification refers to the grouping or organization of soil into classes according to their general characteristics.

Soil is classified into two levels which are local level based on the dominant soil formation factors like parent rock, microclimate, vegetation, slope and drainage, and global level, based on factors like climate, water, and vegetation, which are dominant in the soil profile development.

Their interplay produces varying soil regimes.Lateritization, calcification, podzolization, and salinization are the main soil profile forming processes under different climates.




Criteria for soil classification:

There is a number of factors /criteria used in classifying soils. Some of the criteria used include the following;

Climatic variation in which soil can be classified as the soil of humid tropics(like laterites) in soils of cold regions like tundra soils

Morphological properties of soil like depth, color, texture, structure, temperature, water content, organic matter composition, and chemical composition

Genesis (origin or mode of formation), based on soil-forming processes such as gleization that produce peat, podzolisation that produces podzol, and so forth.




Time (stage), in which soil is classified as mature (zonal) soil, or immature (azonal or young or inceptisol ) soil. Immature soils include regosols, lithosols, silt, alluvium, and newly formed organic soils (andosols)

Suitability to agriculture such that there can be fertile soil and infertile soil.

Drainage of soil, in which soil is classified as well-drained or poorly drained.

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5 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY POPULATION EXPLOSION




Rapid population growth is the rapid increase of population in a certain area.

Environment problems are situations or occurrences which degrade the quality of the environment.

Deforestation

this is cutting down of trees. rapid population growth can cause since people will clear a new area for agriculture and settlement.




For example areas in kisarawe and areas on the outskirt of Dar es salaam have been cleared for settlement expansion due to rapid population increase in dares salaam.

Pollution

this is the addition of unwanted substances to the environment.

Rapid population growth has led to increasing wastes generation and an increase in emissions from industries due to an increase in demand which has led to an increase in industrial activities.




Loss of biodiversity

this is the reduction or total extinction of certain species of plants or animals in the planet.

Rapid population increase has led to clearing large areas for agriculture and settlement and this has led to the reduction or total extinction of some animal and plants species.

For example, in recent years there has been a rapid decrease in the number of elephants due to poaching and encroachment to elephants’ habitat by a human.




Soil erosion

this is wearing away of the topsoil layer due to erosion agents such as wind, running water, and glaciers.

Rapid population growth has led to over-cultivation of land, monoculture, and overgrazing to meet the need of an increased number of people.

land degradation

this is the reduction of land quality and productivity. due to rapid population growth,




there have been poor waste disposal, over-application of artificial fertilizers, and over-cultivation which has led to degradation of land.

To sum up, rapid increase in population always exert great pressure since the increased population needs resources from the environment to meet their needs. Therefore to have sustainable development we need to control the rate of population growth and improve technology

We hope that you have found this article to be useful. If you have any additional points you would like to share with us on problems related to rapid population growth please add them to the comment below.




10 WAYS DAIRY FARMING DIFFER BETWEEN KENYA AND DENMARK

Dairy farming is a system of rearing cattle for milk and milk products.




Farmers in both Kenya and Denmark involve themselves in dairy farming but there are notable differences in how they conduct dairy farming.

The following are ways in which dairy farming in Kenya is different from dairy farming in Denmark:         

  • In Kenya, cattle mainly depend on natural growing grass/pasture whereas in Denmark the cattle is fed on fodder and commercial feeds 
  • In Kenya mechanization is limited/mainly labour intensive whereas in Denmark mechanization is widely used 
  • In Kenya, most farmers practice mixed farming while in Denmark dairy farming is highly specialized 
  • In Kenya, most of the dairy products are consumed by the domestic market  
  • In Kenya, dairy production is affected by variation in a climate wherein in Denmark, dairy farming is least affected by variations in climate 
  • In Kenya, the dairy cooperative movement is less developed whereas In Denmark cooperative movement is highly developed 




  • In Kenya, artificial insemination/extension services is limited to a few farms whereas in Den mark artificial insemination /extension services are widely used
  • In Kenya animals graze outdoors throughout the year whereas in Denmark animals are kept in doors during winter;
  • In Kenya research is limited whereas in Denmark research is extensive; 
  • In Kenya, Dairy farming is mainly practiced in the high lands whereas in Denmark is found throughout the country.

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6 ADVANTAGES AND 10 DISADVANTAGES OF ECOTOURISM




Ecotourism is tourism directed towards exotic natural environments, intended to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife.

Ecotourism activities typically involve interacting with nature, learning about the local culture, and supporting sustainable businesses.

Ecotourism can be a way to preserve natural areas and cultures, and to generate income for local communities

The following are Advantages of eco tourism:

  • Eco-tourism is an opportunity to preserve ecosystem and biodiversity. it also is a chance to generate revenue to support research effort
  • Eco-tourism provide a chance to the local people to escape from cycle of poverty and by sharing their knowledge of the local terrain and ecology with visitors the develop a strong sense of community pride.




  • Eco-tourism can create jobs in remote areas that have benefited less from economic development programmes  that are implemented in more populous areas
  • Protected areas and nature conservation usually provide many benefits to the society, including conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of water shed
  • Eco-tourism helps to conserve threatened wildlife and ensure that robust animal population remain in that way
  • Eco-tourism provide market to local products such as carvings, local arts and so on.
  • Education: Ecotourism can help to educate people about the importance of the natural world and the need to protect it. Tourists can learn about the plants, animals, and ecosystems that they are visiting, and they can also learn about the traditional cultures of the local people.
  • Sustainability: Ecotourism can be a sustainable form of tourism, as it can be designed to minimize its negative impacts on the environment. Ecotourism operators can use renewable energy sources, reduce waste, and minimize pollution.
  • Responsible travel: Ecotourism can promote responsible travel, as it encourages tourists to be aware of their impact on the environment and to act in a way that minimizes harm. Tourists can choose to stay in eco-friendly accommodations, eat sustainably produced food, and use environmentally friendly transportation.
  • Peace and conflict resolution: Ecotourism can promote peace and conflict resolution by bringing people from different cultures together. When tourists and local people interact with each other, they learn about each other’s cultures and perspectives, which can help to build understanding and tolerance.
  • Health: Ecotourism can be good for people’s health. Spending time in nature has been shown to reduce stress, improve mental health, and boost the immune system.




The following are Disadvantages of eco tourism:

  • Inauthenticity: Ecotourism can sometimes be inauthentic, as it may be designed to appeal to tourists rather than to protect the environment or benefit local people.
  • Unsustainable practices: Ecotourism can sometimes involve unsustainable practices, such as the use of fossil fuels or the construction of large infrastructure projects.
  • Lack of regulation: Ecotourism is often not well-regulated, which can lead to problems such as overtourism and environmental degradation.
  • Unrealistic expectations: Ecotourism can sometimes create unrealistic expectations about the natural world, which can lead to disappointment and even harm to the environment.
  • Competition with other land uses: Ecotourism can sometimes compete with other land uses, such as agriculture and forestry. This can lead to conflict between different groups of people.
  • Negative impact on wildlife: Ecotourism can sometimes have a negative impact on wildlife, as it can disturb their habitats and make them more vulnerable to predators.
  • Exploitation of local people: Ecotourism can sometimes lead to the exploitation of local people, as they may be forced to provide goods and services at low prices or be denied access to their traditional lands.
  • Increased traffic and noise: Ecotourism can also lead to increased traffic and noise, which can disturb wildlife and make it difficult for people to enjoy the natural environment.
  • Loss of cultural heritage: Ecotourism can also lead to the loss of cultural heritage, as local people are displaced or their way of life is disrupted. This is especially true when ecotourism is not done in a way that respects local cultures and traditions.
  • Degradation of the natural environment: Ecotourism can put a strain on the natural environment, leading to deforestation, pollution, and other forms of degradation. This is especially true when ecotourism is not managed properly.

ecotourism examples

Volunteer tourism: Volunteer tourism is a type of ecotourism where tourists volunteer their time to help with conservation or community development projects. This can be a great way to learn about a place and its people, while also making a positive impact.

Community-based ecotourism: Community-based ecotourism is a type of ecotourism where the local community is involved in the planning and management of the tourism operation. This ensures that the benefits of tourism are shared with the local people and that the environment is protected.

Eco-lodges: Eco-lodges are accommodations that are designed to minimize their impact on the environment. They often use sustainable building materials and practices, and they may also offer activities that promote environmental education and conservation.

Wildlife watching: Wildlife watching is a popular form of ecotourism that allows tourists to observe animals in their natural habitats. This can be done through activities such as game drives, bird watching, and hiking.

Cultural tourism: Cultural tourism is a type of ecotourism that allows tourists to learn about the culture of a place. This can be done through activities such as visiting museums, attending festivals, and learning about traditional arts and crafts.

Adventure tourism: Adventure tourism is a type of ecotourism that involves challenging physical activities. This can include hiking, camping, whitewater rafting, and mountain biking.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE GREEK SYSTEM AND KOPPEN’S SYSTEM OF CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION




We have two types of climatic classifications, that is the Greek System of climatic classification and Köppen’s scheme.

Both have their functions according to how they are used, we are going to look at this classification of climates one by one and also discuss how the Greek System and Köppen’s scheme work together.

The Greek System climate classification

The Greeks were among the first set of people in the world to classify climates. Their scheme divided the world into the following three climatic zones based on temperature:

1. Torrid or Hot: Areas within the Tropics that experience intense heat.

2. Frigid or Very Cold: Areas of excessive cold in the Arctic and Antarctic regions.

3. Temperate or Mild: Areas lying between the torrid and frigid zones which are neither too hot nor too cold.




The Greek scheme is inadequate because:
 1. It is simplistic. 
2. It ignores such vital climatic factors as latitude, altitude, prevailing winds, vegetative cover, and ocean currents.

Köppen’s Scheme of climate classification

Köppen’s scheme has five major groups which have been coded alphabetically:
A – Tropical rainy climates, with no month cooler than 18 degrees.
B – Dry climates, in which potential evaporation exceeds annual precipitation.
C – Warm temperate rainy or Humid Mesothermal climates, with the coldest month below 18 degrees, but above – 3 degrees.




D – Cool temperate or Microthermal climates, with the coldest month below – 3 degrees, and warmest month above 10 degrees.
E – Polar or ice climates, with the warmest month below 10 degrees.

Koppen went further to add secondary letters to the above letters in order to differentiate between sub-divisions within the five major groups. The secondary letters in Koppen’s scheme climate classification and what they stand for are:




f – adequate rain all months
F – ice cap, with perpetual frost
m – rain forest despite the short dry season
s – summer dry season
S – steppe, with 360 – 760 mm rain in low latitudes
T – tundra
w – winter dry season
W – desert, with less than 250 mm rain per year

A third letter was added later to include information about temperature thus:
a – hot summer, with the warmest month greater than 22 degree
b – warm summer, with less than 22 degree
c – cool, short summer, with only four months greater than 10 degree
d – very cold winter, with less than -38 degree
h – dry-hot, with a mean annual temperature greater than 18 degree
k – dry cold, with less than 18 degree




The above letters are grouped together and ascribed to appropriate climatic belts, e.g.  BW – Hot desert climate and vegetation
BS – Steppe climate and vegetation

BWK – Cool desert climate
Dfe – Cold, snowy forest climate with cool, short summer

Merits of Koppen’s Scheme:

  • It is simple.
  • It is quantitative because it has used numerical values to define the boundaries of climatic groups.
  • It makes it easy to ascribe a given place to a particular climate sub-group on the basis of temperature and precipitation.




  Demerits of Koppen’s Scheme:

  • It is inconsistent because he used mean temperature for his A, C,D, and E zones; whereas his zone B is based on precipitation – evaporation ratio.
  • It is not comprehensive enough because it has not taken the case of the climates of mountainous regions and regions affected by fog.
  • The boundaries of Köppen’s climate types are too strictly empirical.

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ACSEE NECTA 2014 GEOGRAPHY PAPER ONE PAST PAPER




  1. a)   differentiate the following statistical concept;
  •        Inferential statistics and descriptive statistics
  •      Dependent and independent variables

  b) the form five students’ scores in geography subject at Nganza s.s were as follows  

scoresfrequency
20 -292
20- 398
40 – 4910
50 – 5916
60- 696
70 – 791
  •  Calculate standard deviation
  •   What are disadvantages of grouped data?




2. a) Explain the types of vertical aerial photographs

b) Describe why aerial photographs appear difficult in interpretation.  

a)      distinguish the following research concepts ·       

  • research proposal and research report. ·     
  • Qualitative research and quantitative research ·       
  • Data collection and data analysis ·       
  • Population and sample

b)      What are three advantages and disadvantages of sampling technique?  




3. Describe five causes of plate tectonics movement and prove its existence by providing four pieces of evidence.

4. Explain the values of volcanism for the development of the society. Give eight points.  

5. To what extent is river basin development both advantageous and disastrous?  




6. Describe the factors that control the global distribution of plant communities.  

7. Analyses six properties to be considered when studying soil profile at the field

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2 TYPES OF COMPASS SURVEY




 In a compass survey, the direction of the survey line is measured by the use of a magnetic compass while the lengths are by chaining or taping.

Where the area to be surveyed is comparatively large, the compass survey is preferred, whereas if the area is small in extent and a high degree of accuracy is desired, then a chain survey is adopted.

However, where the compass survey is used, care must be taken to make sure that magnetic disturbances are not present.




The compass the two major primary types of survey compass are: the prismatic compass and surveyors compass

 Prismatic Compass Invented in 1814, the prismatic compass consists of a small circular box of about 100m.

It can either be used as a hand instrument or mounted on a tripod and is very useful in a situation where rough surveys are needed i.e.

where the accuracy of the survey is not the main consideration but the speed.




The main parts of a prismatic compass are: compass box, lifting lever, needle, Agate cap, Glass cover, magnetic needle, graduated ring, prism, prism cap, sighting slit, lifting pin, colored glasses, focusing screw, object hair – vane; horsehair, reflecting mirror, brake pin, and spring brake.

A prismatic compass is useful for filling in details in a survey and in places where the ground does not allow the use of chaining.




It is used by the military for reconnaissance surveys, might motility, and for sketching along roads or rivers.

However, while making observations with prismatic compass care must be taken to avoid local attractions.

Also, keys, pins, and other metallic substances must not be brought near the compass.  

Surveyor’s Compass Similar to the prismatic compass but with few modifications, the surveyor’s compass is an old form of compass used by surveyors hence the name.




it is used to determine the magnetic bearing of a given line and is usually used in connection with the chain or compass survey  


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